Dynamics and Conflict within a Team Essay

The team concept is not an unfamiliar one. We are surrounded by teams from the time we take our first breath until the time we leave this Earth. Doctors, nurses, aides, dieticians, housekeeping, and others all exhibited a collaborative effort to ensure our arrival into the world was a safe and successful journey. Our adventures throughout grade school were also brought about by teamwork. Sports, movies, ballet, politics, business, higher education and several other parameters of life as we know it are the epitomes of teamwork, well-choreographed representations of the adage that states â€Å"Two heads are better than one. Tasks achieved through teamwork are anticipated to be more thorough, more effective, more elaborative, more multifaceted, and more successful than those tasks carried out by one. Individuals comprising a team contribute intrinsic skills and intuitive knowledge to the whole of the team, each member making up for what the other lacks. The result is a balanced load of all the skills necessary to complete the assigned task with proficiency (Morris, 2005). The ultimate success of the team is strongly influenced by the member’s ability to work together in a cohesive state. Team dynamics† encompasses any and all ways that individual affiliates interact with their counterparts en route to the common goal. The overall characteristics of the assigned task, along with the inert skill of each member may also have an impact on the team’s success (Morris, 2005). However, the focus here is more concerned with the interpersonal relationships within a team and strategies to employ in an effort to avoid conflict or to utilize should conflict arise. The Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science and Medicine defines team dynamics as the following: Often referred to colloquially as ‘team chemistry’; the patterns of interaction among team members that determine team spirit, harmony, cohesion, and morale. Some coaches believe that team dynamics are beyond their control, resulting from the unpredictable mixture of the personalities. Others believe that one of the most important tasks of a good coach is to create the best possible team dynamics for success (Oxford, 2005). The concepts behind this definition can apply to all types of teams. The team’s ‘chemistry’ is a dominant factor outlining the success of a team. If team members cannot work together effectively, then completing their assigned project is a more difficult goal to achieve. The virtual team is presented with quite a few more discrepancies to overcome than those teams centered in real time. Before they are fully able to work up to their potential, the virtual teammates must establish some kind of rapport with their fellow constituents, lay down mutual ground rules ensuring each member has a designated responsibility, and everyone must strive to meet the team’s common goal, no matter their differences individually. Of these aforementioned qualities, the neutral rapport is the most difficult one to render effectively. Unfortunately, personality is often misinterpreted or lacking in full in the virtual team environment compared to those real time teams, where the member’s personalities are vividly displayed. Physically present interaction allows one to pick up on the visual and unspoken cues that contribute to a person’s character. Body language, voice inflection and intonation, the nodding of a head, or firm handshake are just among the few effective communications present in the real world, but lacking in the virtual realm. One has to rely on their own interpretations of their affiliate’s written accounts and then come to a fair-minded conclusion. â€Å"When it comes to teamwork, a person’s ability to build relationships, work with others, and communicate effectively can be more important than his or her technical expertise† (Dawson, 2005). This concept is crucial if an online team is to be successful. If one member does not have the ability to communicate their own thoughts and ideas online, how will the rest of the team incorporate that member’s contributions into the project? The need for team dynamics is understood after the team is formed, when the individuals work collaboratively toward the common goal. The precursor to team dynamics is (or should be) thoroughly contemplated prior to assigning each member to the team, according to the task at hand and the skills of each member. If the team consists of those most knowledgeable in marketing an idea, for example, and the project calls for a team of post-marketing surveyors, then (obviously) the team would not know how to go about getting the job done, and so their dynamics would be hindered. Team members need to trust each other as well as trust each other’s expertise. They need to feel confident that the other members are doing their share, so that when the team finally pools their ideas together, a multifaceted solution results. Teaming is a collective responsibility; every member is held accountable for their individual contribution, as well as the timely completion of the collaborative effort. In 1965, Bruce W. Tuckman developed a model of five stages for developing teams: â€Å"forming†, â€Å"norming†, â€Å"storming†, â€Å"producing† and â€Å"ending† (Bookman, 2005). At the â€Å"forming† stage, dynamics are important because this is where things begin. At this point you need the chemistry to see how to set up the group according to each other’s strengths and weaknesses. You need to feel confident that all of the members are willing to do what is required for the good of the team. The â€Å"norming† stage is where the group comes together. Dynamics are important here because decisions need to be made and rules need to be set. The team needs to decide who will do what. Expectations, both of the group and of each individual, will also be determined at this point. The team also has to decide what will be done regarding conflicts, lack of participation of a member, and lack of , or insufficient, contributions. If the group dynamic falls apart here, the group will fall apart. If a problem is going to exist, it usually makes itself present during the â€Å"storming† stage, which now comes into play. Strong dynamics within the group can help resolve potential problems before they become major issues. As long as the group can communicate well, they should be able to resolve any conflicts. Next in line is the â€Å"producing† stage, where good team dynamics start to pay off as the team is now producing high volumes of quality work. At this point, if there are problems with the work, a strong team dynamic will ensure the issues are resolved. Finally (and appropriately titled), we come to the â€Å"ending† stage. The team itself has completed their task and is no longer required or just one member could be departing as their individual task is complete, marking this point. If the team as a whole terminates, a good dynamic can ensure each member walks away with a positive outlook, especially if there may be another opportunity to work with the same team. However, if the ending is due to a teammate’s departure, a good team dynamic will make it easier to carry on without that member’s presence (Bookman, 2005). Improving team dynamics is actually a learning experience. Each member has to learn to develop or improve upon their ability to trust, be dependent upon, and work with each of their partners. One way to do this is through challenge programs. Challenge programs are initiated away from the office, and are not specifically job related. The people involved will face physical or mental challenges with only the other members of their group to rely on. The team’s success will depend on each member’s ability to trust, guide and accept guidance, assist and accept assistance from their colleagues. When it comes to teams, and the team dynamic, the success of the team is dependant on the success of the individuals (Steinfeld, 2005). Another concept, if a physical challenge program is not an option, is an on-line training program. According to the â€Å"News† section (2005), Personnel Today mentioned that the BBC used an on-line training program that showed that the majority of participants learned a ‘significant amount’ by participating in the program. The basis of this program was to show that teams can be more successful when the leaders use more of a teaching / coaching approach rather than a command-and-control approach. Yet another option to improve team dynamics, and have a successful team, is found in Kenneth E. Holtman’s (2005) â€Å"The 10 commandments of team leadership. † (Training 101: It’s a team effort). The abstract is a follows: The first requires them to stick to their mission and vision, which guide teams in creating and using more precise strategies and plans. The second commandment obligates team leaders not to tolerate undesirable behavior, which can only undermine team morale and performance if not addressed properly. The third commandment insists on the eschewal of self-interest to dominate over mutual interest, which helps avoid resentment, competition and conflict. The other rules require preventing fear to influence team behavior, fighting cliques which can affect team dynamics, dealing with conflict, refusing to recognize luck of trust as an excuse, encouraging risk taking, sharing information and managing processes carefully. Although this article refers to the leadership role, it can also be a guide to improve the team dynamic at an individual level. Even an individual, is a leader, when it comes to their part of the project. In summary, team dynamics are important because dynamic or ‘real’ teams have clarity of purpose. Everyone understands the team’s objectives, as well as own intrinsic roles in delivering them. Other key characteristics include a focus on quality, support for innovation, and the ability to work creatively with potential conflicts† (Agnes, 2005). Time Management . . . A concept we should all thoroughly master. In our present lives, though, managing time seems to be an insurmountable feat. We have goals whose obtainment is so far in the distance that we tend to lose sight of them, put them off to satisfy the initial moment, and lose ourselves in the process. We all have so many things going on in life these days. We all wear so many hats, working valiantly to meet up with the demands of each one. In doing so, we put too much pressure on ourselves to please the masses, not focusing on which one should come first or which ones can be eliminated to better suit the more prospective accessories. Prioritize! Analyze your collection of hats, keeping in mind that God only gave you one head because you are only one person. The two hands He blessed you with are more suitable for delegating the tasks by passing down or throwing out the hats which do not measure up to the high priority coverings. Don’t waste time finding time. Each and every day seems to begin with focusing on the fastest route from point â€Å"A† to point â€Å"B,† like those deluded souls you may see driving around forever in a crowded parking lot simply to get a closer space, when they could have been in the building faster if only they had taken the first available slot. We put too much time-consuming thought into those misconstrued notions held dear to our â€Å"get rich quick† â€Å"instant gratification† society. Success does not happen overnight; it never will. Honest achievements are the result of dedication, blood, sweat, tears, pain, anguish, mental fatigue, still persevering in light of all these constituents. Do not delude yourself to the â€Å"get something for nothing† ideal. In all matters of simplicity, it is just not going to happen. Instead, spend one day planning out your entire journey en route to destination, â€Å"My Ultimate Goal,† mapping out your daily trek so that you know the steps required to make your arrival at your future locale a realistic ambition. Once the plan is made, we tend to start off by flying and then realize we find more pleasure in the up close and personal (although more time-consuming) scenic route. Do not focus on the negative concept of the ultimate goal being so far away, rather focus on the here and now – the positive reinforcement and instant gratification that makes itself present, daily, through climbing and conquering each individual cliff on the way to the your mountain’s pinnacle. If you have chosen to spend your time griping to others about how unfair life can be, then you have the time to realize the actions required to change it. If you have the time to criticize others who are happy with their lives, then you have the time to determine what you need to do to satisfy your own, putting those realized actions into motion. Do not succumb to your past negative experiences that have defined your life up to this point. Reflect and eject or define and redesign! Recognize and get rid of those experiences not applicable to your present life. Or, acknowledge those hindrances and transform them into positives. We only become strong by being willing to overcome. Once we overcome the negatives in our past, we can then view them as a present and future positive, in retrospect. Do not allow present or future obstacles to terminate your journey. Push them aside, jump over them, steer around them, or do whatever you have to do to find your way back to the path you once initiated. If the obstacles are applicable to your future and you must bring them along, simply take them under your wing and walk, instead of flying. More time will be required to reach your destination, but at least you will be continuing in the right direction. According to Carol Carter, Joyce Bishop and Sarah Lyman Kravits (2002), â€Å"When you set goals, prioritize, and manage your time effectively, . . . you can develop the kind of focus that will help you achieve . . . † Individuals and the whole team can utilize this strategy to enhance their own time management skills. Time management can be accomplished at the individual level by assessing one’s daily schedule. Write a list of wanted accomplishments, and then prioritize. Be realistic when compiling a daily schedule, and do not list more than can be effectively achieved by sundown. Take control of goals and stay on task. Learn how to say â€Å"no† to keep control of your schedule. If unforeseen deviations do occur, simply get back on track as soon as possible. Times saving techniques are also helpful with effective time management. Take a few minute each day to plan the events happening that day, or schedule known appointments and other obligations occurring days, weeks, even months away, and then regressing to mark progress thus far. Day Runners, calendars, date books, PDAs and computers are some of the many tools available for using time wisely. Place items in â€Å"urgent† and â€Å"non-urgent† categories as the list is compiled. (Stephen Covey’s 4 Quadrants Principle). Schedule within a reasonable time frame. Allow for relaxation breaks so that the focus is heightened once back on task. Incorporating critical thinking into our daily lives and daily routines will help us to use this technique in many areas of our lives and make more effective decisions. As the day starts, think through your day and look over your daily list to see in any adjustments need to be made. Again allow for flexibility.

Facts and Inferences

F&I Page 1 Facts & Inferences Richard Melton 2/01/13 Fundamentals of Interpersonal Communications – 97 Zelda Togun F&I Page 2 Facts & InferencesIt was a real â€Å"eye opener† to see how much people make inferences when they aren’t sure what the real facts are. I noticed that even though I was taking notes and looking for inferences I am guilty of making them myself. For example, my best friends’ husband is at home all the time and they struggle to pay their bills. My friend is always asking me to loan her money. I was talking to my sister about it and I told her I thought my friends’ husband was lazy and shouldn’t be relying on her to take care of him.My sister agreed and we left it at that. Later on that day my best friend called me and asked if I could help her till next payday. I said sure and asked her why her husband isn’t working. She told me he has bipolar disorder and can’t hold a job, he has tried numerous times but has difficulty concentrating. They were in the middle of applying for S. S. I and that it was a long drawn out process. He is very ashamed of it and that’s why nobody knows about it.I should of thought it through when I was talking to my sister before I made the inference that he was lazy. Now that I know the truth I feel really bad for talking about him that way. F&I Page 3 References: Wood, Julia T. (2010). â€Å"Interpersonal Communication-7th Edition†. Boston, MA. Wadsworth; Cengage Learning.

Importance of Physical Education in Adolescents Essay

Introduction of the Topic In many schools around the world, there is an inadequate physical activity for students that pose a serious public health problem. Regular activity sustained over several years contributes to weight control and protection from cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and other chronic diseases (ACSM 1998). The Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance (YRBS) system provides the most complete information regarding physical ability habits of adolescents and young people. Using this system, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) track six youth behavior, which includes physical activity. Preliminary results from the 2001 YRBS survey (MSBE in press) indicate that 85 percent of adolescents in a certain state in the United States performed some vigorous activity at one day a week for 20 minutes, but only 27 percent indicated five or more days of moderate activity. While this study comes from only one state, the same result of physical activity levels has also been observed in national averages. This shortage of physical activity among adolescents in the U. S. was attributed to an excess of sedentary behavior. In a certain survey, an astounding 53 percent of the students surveyed reported watching two or more hours of television on a typical school night. Of those, 15 percent watched four or more hours. Such survey significantly proves no difference from other American children in their television viewing habits (MSBE in press). Physical education class is where students should be learning the necessary knowledge and skills to be physically active, yet physical education is not available to students as fully as it should be. In 2001, (MSBE 2001) published a data that majority of elementary schools in the U. S. offer physical education classes for an average of two days per week, for an average of 60 minutes per week. Half of middle school students receive physical education five days per week, for an average of 48 minutes per week for than 25 weeks during the school year. The other half unfortunately receives far less than that. According to (MSBE 2001), only 29 percent of high school students reported having daily physical education classes. In the U. S. , 29 percent of adolescents in grades 9-12 participated in daily physical education in 1999 as compared with 42 percent in 1991 (14). Participation in organized sports provides another opportunity for physical activity. MSBE (2001) found that 61 percent of 9-12 graders in Michigan reported playing on one or more sports teams. MSBE (2001) added that African-American and Hispanic high school students were less likely with 48 percent compared to Caucasians with 52 percent to play on sports teams. Despite several studies showing that most youth perform some vigorous activities, there are still a significant number of adolescents who do not participate in any regular physical activity. Their reasons include the unavailability of physical education classes, limited spots on school-sponsored teams, and the lack of resources for communities in providing recreational teams. Others, on the contrary, may choose not to participate regardless of the availability of the opportunities. Not considering the causes, it is still important to initiate efforts of getting non-participants involved in some form of physical activity in keeping them from becoming sedentary on a permanent basis. A couple of studies indicate that a total of 30 minutes of moderate physical activity performed most days of the week has a significant impact on prevention of cardiovascular and other chronic diseases (Pate et al. 1995). Provision of the proper instruction, encouragement, and motivation, such numbers is attainable by the majority of children and youth in the U. S. Background of the Topic Health care professionals have long understood the importance of physical activity in children. Traditionally, exercise has been prescribed as part of the treatment for children suffering from chronic diseases such as asthma, cystic fibrosis, and insulin-dependent diabetes (Nixon et al.1992; Rowland 1990). Regular physical activity, in many cases, has the potential to reduce both morbidity and mortality among these youngsters (Rowland 1990). Studies of health children’s exercise habits and physical fitness in the U. S. initially focused on judging muscular strength, speed, and power. In the 1950s, interest surged when researchers found that American children were less fit compared to European children, as measured by tests done by (Kraus and Hirschland 1954). These results expectedly shocked many Americans and thus prompted the formation of the President’s Council on Youth Fitness in 1956 (later became as President’s Council on Physical Fitness and Sports). From then on, the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation developed a youth fitness test battery primarily designed to measure general motor performance skills such as power, speed, and agility (AAHPER 1958). More recently, testing in youth fitness has evolved into a more health-related format, superseding the emphasis on traditional motor skills (AAHPERD 1988). At the present time by far, there is no total agreement minimal criterion fitness standards, or even the question of whether physical fitness has declined significantly in recent years with regards to the majority of the youth (Blair 1992; Kuntzleman and Reiff 1992). There is, however, a consensus that children and adolescents should be involved in physical activity on a regular basis and systems of teaching/reward should encourage active participation and enjoyment by all students (Luepker 1999). Physical activity is recognized as the preventive measure for chronic disease. In view of this, Michigan issued a position statement in 1989 that emphasizes the importance of quality physical education programs in their schools during the 1990s (MAHPERD 1989s). Additionally, it was Michigan that initiated the state-wide project called Exemplary Physical Education Curriculum (EPEC). The EPEC was designed to be a public health initiative that addressed the crushing burden of chronic disease attributable to physical inactivity that would be carried out completely in the school setting. It has scientific grounding in chronic disease prevention, and uses state-of-the-art educational theory. More importantly, the EPEC curriculum equips students in understanding the importance of physical activity and in obtaining the fitness, knowledge, motor skills and personal/social skills they need to be active for life. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) assumed leadership in a new approach during the 1990s. This new approach of CDC was aimed to increase physical activity among adolescents and adults. By then, it was highly emphasized that education about the importance of physical activity would be ineffective if the physical and social environments made it inconvenient or unsafe to exercise. The realization of this new approach was published in 1995 that describes a new role for states – promoting policy and environmental interventions in preventing and controlling cardiovascular disease – along with particular recommendations for environmental approaches to increasing physical activity (King et al. 1995). Scientific Basis Several recent studies show clearly that risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and other chronic diseases are evident in childhood and adolescents (Freedman et al. 1997; Linder and DuRant 1982). Other studies also found to be related to children’s aerobic fitness and physical activity, or lack thereof (Craig et al. 1996; Tolfrey et al. 1999). Independent of nutritional habits, Dietz (1983) has found that physical inactivity has been shown to be a significant predictor and cause of obesity in children. Over the past 30 years, the prevalence of overweight among children in the U. S. has tripled. This increase in overweight resembles to a trend for sedentary activities such as computer games and stuff that replace recreational pursuits involving more physical activity (Bar-Or et al.1998; Freedman et al. 1997). Such sedentary behavior of the youth will likely be reinforced in view of the recent trends for computers in every home and classroom. Recently, a randomized trial aimed at reducing children’s television watching was designed in the hope of an increase in the adolescents’ physical activity and fitness levels (Robinson 1999). Notwithstanding the reduction of television watching time, Robinson’s study found no changes in activity and fitness. On the contrary, another study combined both an addition of physical activity and a reduction of sedentary behaviors in a weight reduction program for obese children (Epstein et al. 2000). It excluded the school-related sedentary activities (i. e. studying and homework) including only those performed during the youngsters’ leisure hours. The study found that both adding physical activity and at the same time reducing sedentary behaviors were effective in promoting weight loss and aerobic fitness in children. Family intervention approach in the treatment (not found in Robinson’s study) may have been the key component of the program. It is essential to remind that children with the lowest physical activity levels and highest percentage of body fatness are most likely to develop other risk factors for CVD, including elevated blood pressure and serum cholesterol levels (Tolfrey 1999). Nonetheless, it is encouraging to note somehow that adolescents’ lipoprotein profiles can be improved with physical activity and exercise interventions (Craig et al. 1996). In obese children, weight loss can occur and blood pressure can be lowered when physical activity is an integral part of treatment regimen (Roccini et al.1988). According to Fagot-Campagna et al. (2000), heaviest children are more likely to develop Type II diabetes compared to their leaner counterparts. Type II diabetes was seldom seen in youth prior to the dramatic increase in the number of overweight in youth in recent years. Diabetes Prevention Program Research Group (2002) published their research showing that modest weight loss and 150 minutes of physical activity per week could reduce the incidence of Type II diabetes in adults at high risk for the condition. While this study has not yet been replicated in children and adolescents, it significantly lends support for the urgency of helping the youth become physically active, most especially those with body weights that could place them at risk for diabetes. Some cardiovascular disease risk factors have the inclination to track over time (Marshall et al. 1998). That is, individuals will likely keep them through adulthood if they have risk factors as children. One concrete example is a follow-up of the Harvard growth study of 1922-1935 showing that being overweight during adolescence is a greater predictor of chronic disease development (i.e. cardiovascular disease, arthritis) compared to being overweight as an adult (Must et al. 1992). In the same way, (Taylor et al. 1999) found that sedentary lifestyle habits may be formed at a young age, and (Janz and Mahoney 1997) claimed the tendency of aerobic fitness and physical activity behaviors to track throughout childhood, and possibly into adulthood. Dennison et al. (1988) found that very inactive adolescents had the lowest aerobic fitness scores (measured by a 600-yard run) when they were youngsters. A longitudinal study in Finland showed that children who were most sedentary had the least favorable cardiovascular disease risk profile when they became adolescents (Raitakari et al. 1994). While the relationship between physical activity and fitness and their influence on cardiovascular disease risk is clear in adults, results from several studies shows that it is not known whether fitness or activity is the most important predictor for developing cardiovascular disease in adulthood (Pate and Ross 1987; Sallis 1993). Furthermore, there is no consensus on the question whether regular physical activity will result in considerable gains in aerobic fitness in children, specifically those who are adolescents (Morrow and Freedson 1994; Payne and Morrow 1993). Despite the existence of this relationship between fitness and physical activity in children, their associations are not strong based on studies of (Aaron et al. 1993; Morrow and Freedson 1994). Katzmarzyk et al (1998) explains that it is possible that large variability in children’s rates of growth and maturity make it difficult to correlate the fitness and activity variables. In addition, the lack of strong association between fitness and activity in children may be due in part to methodological problems. This is to say that, even though a number of valid and objective aerobic fitness tests have been developed, it is more difficult to quantitatively evaluate varying degrees of physical activity in young people (Freedson 1992; Pate 1993). In any event, in a review of cross-sectional studies designed to measure children’s activity levels, Sallis found that boys are approximately 23 percent more active than girls; boys’ activity levels decline 2. 7 percent per year, while girls’ decline 7. 4 percent per year (Sallis 1993). A major role that explains why children choose to be inactive is their poor self-efficacy for physical exercise. These young people believe that they cannot perform sports and exercises very well as they try to compare themselves to their peers. Self-efficacy emerged as a primary determinant of physical activity behavior that significantly varies with age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Self-efficacy is situation specific and its relationship with physical activity is often examined in relation to three components: efficacy for overcoming barriers to physical activity, efficacy for competing activities, and efficacy for support seeking. A number of research studies have shown that different aspects of self-efficacy correlate with physical activity or predict physical activity behavior in children of all ages (Allison et al. 1999; Trost et al. 1997; DiLorenzo et al. 1998). Self-efficacy, in near adolescence, appears to play its greatest role in physical activity behavior. (Pate et al. 1997; Trost et al. 1999) found that highly physically active fifth and sixth grade boys and girls have shown higher self-efficacy for overcoming barriers. More inactive children have shown less self-efficacy in overcoming barriers competing activities, and support seeking. As a matter of fact, self-efficacy for overcoming barriers is an essential predictor of physical activity in study of Trost et al. (1997) that includes mostly African-American population of fifth graders. Self-efficacy remains a strong predictor of physical activity through about ninth grade (Allison et al.1999). During the high school years of youngsters, it appears that girls begin to require more social influence in order to continue physical activity behaviors, while boys are still in need of enhanced self-efficacy (DiLorenzo et al. 1998). Due to the fact that social support appears to be an important contributor to physical activity behavior, more research should focus on this area. Nevertheless, both self-efficacy and social support are subject to parent and peer actions that need to be considered in physical activity interventions.

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 5

Business Ethics - Essay Example This case study aims to explain the ethically questionable behavior of sales representatives in the pharmaceutical industry. Medical Representatives of the Taiwanese pharmaceutical industry that deals in all kinds of biomedical medicines, and prescribed drugs have formed the sample of the study. Sales Representatives working at hospitals, and not pharmacies or clinics, were considered. 24 sales representatives are informed of the questionnaire, and then of the 16 scenarios, only one version was exposed to each respondent. In total, 328 respondents were analyzed (Hsu, Fang and Lee, 159). In this case study, the differences in the ethically questionable behavior are examined using four variables: â€Å"Frame Pattern†, â€Å"Commission Structure†, â€Å"Behavior Control Type†, and â€Å"Marketing Norm Perceptions.† The Medical Representatives are given a scenario, the background information, and the treatments. They now have to get into the character’s shoes, and arrive at a decision that if they were in that situation what they would have done. The background information given to them is as follows: In the pharmaceutical industry, sales personnel should invite clients to banquets in order to make the sales. The price should not exceed 3500 dollars in Taiwanese currency, but your client has chosen a restaurant that exceeds the bill of 3500 dollars in Taiwanese currency. The treatments are: (Hsu, Fang and Lee, 159). 1. â€Å"The sales representative’s profits (have already reached/are only at) 50%, and the probability of (receiving/failing to receive) the client’s deal, which will achieve the quota, (will increase considerably/is minimal)† (Hsu, Fang and Lee. p. 159). 2. â€Å"The base salary of the sales representative is (600/400) thousand dollars. If he achieves the annual quota, a bonus of (200/400) thousand dollars will be awarded to him. The ratio of this award to his base salary is (only 33%/ 100%)† (Hsu,

News of the World Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

News of the World - Research Paper Example The news that shocked the world though is that in the mid-2011, it was announced that News International, the new owner of the tabloid will stop publishing News of the World. This is based on the result of the controversies surrounding the data gathering process of the tabloid. Prior to the event, the company was charged of phone-hacking to be able to get information for the tabloid. The said crime used to be allegations but evidences surfaced and the company was attacked by the public. The last issue of News of the World was released on the 8th of July 2011 after more than a century of running. The owners had to make the move to stop the publication due to the fact that it cannot overcome the political and commercial attacks that can occur through the years (Robinson, Scott and Sweney). One of the main reasons for the collapse of the News of the World is the phone-hacking. The said action became controversial because it is against the ethical rules of journalism and can be considered disrespectful to private citizens. One of the events that tainted the reputation of the paper is the case of 2007 when Clive Goodman was imprisoned for phone hacking. He is the paper’s royal correspondent. But the said matter did not end there. Another serious case of phone hacking is related to British teenager Milly Dowler who was found dead. Based on these cases and the corruption within the tabloid’s structure, the News of the World had to close down (Addley). Due to the cases of phone hacking committed and made famous by the News of the World, the Editor’s Code of Practice which used to be considered sufficient to cover ethical concerns in journalism had to be amended. The tabloid had one of the newspapers with numerous achievements but in the past years, the paper turned from dedicated journalism to being limited to trends and pop culture. When new issues such as pedophile, corruption, crimes, etc. would suffice in the media, News of the World would

Appropraite and inappropriate behaviors as well as societal Essay

Appropraite and inappropriate behaviors as well as societal consequences - Essay Example This paper would discuss the appropriate and inappropriate behaviors of celebrities and their implications over them and others around them. Moreover, it would elaborate over the societal consequences of their behavior. Discussion The public eye is known to be vicious. Therefore, celebrity status is under attack while a personal breakdown is underway. This causes irate and disturbing behavior in these suffering children of Hollywood. Though substance and alcohol abuse are to blame, psychological symptoms are to be researched and reviewed for each celebrities’ episodes. It seems they refuse to see what consequences are to be involved with such inappropriateness. No matter how rich or how big of a star, celebrities should not have leniency when it comes to paying the consequences of their ignorant behavior. There are arguments that claim that there is nothing entertaining about the behavior of Charlie Sheen and people should not find it amusing in any way. However, the misdemean or and unethical acts of Sheen have been increasing his popularity exponentially. The society has come to a point where people enjoy the disorderly and frantic behavior of celebrities. Every now and then we see news about outrageous celebrity behavior, as the nature of human beings today attracts them towards gossip and exaggeration, the news spreads around and creates publicity for the celebrity. However, pointless this may sound, more often than not; this publicity is what the celebrities want. Celebrities hold an inherent responsibility to maintain acceptable behavior as they are being watched and followed by many people; a lot of them try to enact these celebrities and consider them as role models. Lindsay Lohan has been seen in the limelight for various events of inappropriate behavior including many instances of drug abuse, drunken driving and even shoplifting. Long ago, Lindsay was admired for being a good actor, however, in recent years she is seen as nothing more than a tra in wreck. Her constant admissions to rehabs and bad behavior turned her into the worst role model. This kind of behavior from celebrities has adverse implications on the society as a whole when people who admire these celebrities are left confused by their misdemeanor. The younger generation of the society is the most sensitive to these inappropriate actions. Children tend to imitate the actions of the adults that they think highly of. This has led to young girls and boys being involved in drugs, sexual curiosity and plain outrageous behavior. Anna Nicole smith was addicted to drugs after her divorce with husband, J. Howard Marshall. She was depressed and got addicted to pain killers and withdrawal from the drugs led her to panic attacks and seizures. Many wondered if the actions of Anna Nicole smith were genuine or a mere act of publicity stunt and self-promotion. (Crean, 2004) However, her consumption of drugs eventually led to her demise and this became a warning for everyone. Re cent behavior of Chris Brown created uproar especially among the female population. The news about Chris Brown allegedly beating Rihanna and this news spread around quickly creating a bad image of Chris Brown. After the incident of Brown, among the many implications was the allegation by the Milk moustache campaign. It was claimed that the campaign held an image for the teenagers and this would be spoiled by the inappropriate beh

Construction law - standard form contracts Essay

Construction law - standard form contracts - Essay Example Comparison is made in the context of provisions such as Design Changes, Delays and Disputes, Payments, and Dispute Resolution. The first version of the National Engineering Contract came into being in 1991 under the name New Engineering Contract and was used for a number of projects, particularly in South Africa (Smith 1999, p.250). The contract was different in many respects from other similar contracts and therefore it was criticized by many in the initial periods of its inception. With its new version came into force as NEC3, its popularity has widenened. Established in 1931, Joint Contracts Tribunal (JCT) has much experience and resources in the field of construction industry. Its resources include standard forms of contracts, standard documentation, and other guidance notes. JCT was incorporated as a company limited by guarantee in 1998. Thereafter, it has been the responsibility of the company to look after the JCT Council and producing suites of contract documents for the use of construction industry (Mulcahy 2008, p. 165). Under this contract, the contractor is obliged to design the works of the project in conformity to the project information supplied by the employer (Clause 21, p.7). The contractor is also responsible to ensure that that the project design is accepted by the Project Manager. Sometimes, the project manager may not accept the design in case the design is not prepared in accordance with the work information and / or relevant legislation. The contractor needs to commence the works once the consent from the project manager as to the acceptance of work design is received. One of the provisions of this contact grants authority to the employer, to use the design so prepared for purposes in connection with construction, use, alteration or demolition of the project work. In case, it is not allowed, it will be separately stated in the contract. It is also notable that the project manager is given the authority to accept or reject the design after a careful scrutiny of the same. Joint Contract Tribunal 2005 As per the provision of JCT 2005, the preparation of the work design is the responsibility of the contractor like that of NEC3. The provisions of this contract stipulate that the contractor is required to prepare and submit the project design before the administrator/architect appointed by the employer. It also states that the design should be prepared in such a way that it meets all the requirements as mentioned in the Employer's work requirement. Once the design is prepared, the same is handed over to the architect for scrutiny. The architect, within 14 days of acceptance, should give the design back to the contractor after putting his comment on one copy of the original design. Three comment grades are usually used under this contract, namely A, B, and C. The mark 'A' signifies that the contract can commence the work as per the work requirements with the same design and no change is needed. The mark 'B' implies the design need not be changed, but works have to be carried out as pe r the comments put forward

Reasons to Drill Off Shore Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Reasons to Drill Off Shore - Essay Example In other words, global economy is inversely proportional to oil prices. When oil price increases, global economy declines and when the oil price decreases global economy achieves growth. American economy also follows the same path as the global economy does. A world without oil fuel is unimaginable at present. Even though we have many other energy sources, none of them are capable of replacing oil. Even though nobody has any doubt about the utility or essentiality of oil in sustaining human life in its present form, some people argues against offshore drilling citing environmental reasons. At the time of crude oil purification and also at the time of operating vehicles, oil liberates so many greenhouse gases like oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, methane etc. Daniel et al (2006) have mentioned that â€Å"between 1976 and 1990, oil companies in Nigeria witnessed a total of 2,796 oil spills. An estimated total quantity of 2,105,393 barrels of oil was spilled on land, coastal and off shore marine environments† (Daniel et al, 2006, p.111). Amidst all such criticisms labeled against offshore drilling, it is a fact that the no other energy sources are capable of substituting oil. In other words, offshore drilling should be continued in its present form until we would be able to find out alternate energy sources to replace oil. â€Å"The United States consumes nearly one-fourth of the world's oil. The big discoveries are happening offshore, says Robert Bryce, managing editor of Energy Tribune† (Jervis et al, 2008). The above statistics and opinion clearly point towards the necessities of offshore drilling. It is difficult for United States to replace oil with another energy source at present because of the huge dependence of America on oil fuels. America is producing only 10% of its total oil needs, which means around 90% of oil required for its domestic usage, is being imported from overseas countries. It is difficult for America like big country to re ly heavily on other countries for energy needs. â€Å"Unfortunately, because of dumb luck, most of the world’s petroleum is controlled by nations that are unfriendly to the United States. Russia, Saudi Arabia and Iran were three of the top five producers of petroleum in 2007† (Column: Offshore Drilling Not Hoax, But Necessity To United States, 2009). Arab countries, Russia and China are the major oil producers in the world and America’s relations with these countries are not so good. Under such circumstances, if these countries decide to stop oil supply to America, energy crisis may intensify in America. Under such circumstances, it is necessary for America to increase offshore drilling to find out more oil sources. As Robert Bryce says, the possibility of big discoveries cannot be ruled out in offshore drilling. It should be noted that the entire faces of gulf countries have been changed immensely as result of the discovery of oil sources in those countries. Th e living standards of the people in gulf countries improved a lot as a result of the oil discovery. Such dramatic things can happen in America also and therefore oil drilling or offshore drilling should be continued even though criticisms are there. The following statistics from Louisiana reveals the importance of offshore drilling further. Louisiana has had offshore drilling since 1947. About 172 active rigs dot the Gulf of Mexico waters off the coast, producing about 79% of the oil and 72% of the natural gas that comes from drilling off the nation's

Discussion 1 Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion 1 - Term Paper Example Some reasons why a person may go against his /her conscience may be because of physical limitations, psychological limitations and social limitations. In addition, unless an individual feels free to do something, it makes no sense to follow it. It may not be always good to follow one’s conscience (Shaw, 2010, p. 20). According to the theories of conscience and moral principles, it should be my duty to help the acquaintance irrespective of the fact whether he recognises or does not recognise me. The moral principle within me does not allow me to leave the person behind and drive home quietly just to watch a match. But at the same time if I get down to help him I might get late and miss out on the important football match and most important when the acquaintance did not recognise me I should not feel guilty and not follow my conscience. The Harvard case study talks about students hacking some of the renowned universities website to find out whether they got selected or not. This act is considered to be morally permissible as it is against the law and moral principles of an individual to perform such act. They did not realise the consequences of the act and, as a result, all the 119 candidates were rejected from Harvard. The applicants should have waited for the results till the university had published. In spite of the fact that they are going to get caught copying and pasting information by candidate make the most common mistake. The candidates do not care about being caught and so they perform such an act. Also probably they do not start off the assignment on time and at the end moment they are left with no option other than copying and pasting. Applying the Kant’s ethics in the case of Ford Pinto, it can be said that there was no goodwill in the decision undertaken by Ford. It was rather motivated by just money and stiff competition. Ford did not ensure safety with regard to purchase of car by

Key Factors Affect In Car Buying In Shanghai Dissertation

Key Factors Affect In Car Buying In Shanghai - Dissertation Example There were also several corporations that distorted the place of factories in China from dispensation trade bases to production bases for domestic supply depending on the market expansion. In the case of processed food manufacturers, the position of Chinese factories thus far was to process worldwide procured raw materials in China and export them to Japan. This approach is based on the opinion concerning modify in the consumer market that the insist for processed food will produce because there are many dual-income families and families in China often go out for Long routed drive (Kim, L., 2003, 506-521). Findings Consumer market growing at multiple levels According to the latest research, In the Chinese market, the purchasing power of heart income earners and over is increasing in the urban areas of coastal regions. In addition, incomes are rising in the urban areas in the inland and northeastern regions, and consumer behavior is ahead momentum in wide-ranging regions and income groups. At the same time, though, it has become clear from this study that there are lots of factors that cannot be precise by averages, such as differences in consumer behavior in the urban and rural areas in the Chinese market as well as disparities in consumer behavior by income group inside cities as well. Retailers such as Car dealers that have entered the Chinese market have seen strapping business results in China, which has acceded to the WTO and is rapidly making progress in deregulation.

Policy proposal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Policy proposal - Essay Example The death of Laci and her unborn child was cited extensively in the Congressional and Senate debates on the bill. The bill was passed by a Republican-controlled House. It has been a Republican policy to recognize the life of a fetus as long as it is attached to the uterus. Thus, pro-life Republican members of Congress merged their agenda with Laci’s case to energize the government agenda in the house. The Unborn Victims of Violence Act covers the rights of unborn children in the light of criminal violence. The act allows the judiciary to treat the mother and the unborn child as separate entities while dealing with violence against pregnant women (Abrams par. 1). The act also provides that human life begins after implantation in the uterus. Thus, any fetus attached to the uterus is considered a member of the Homo sapiens species. The act allows investigations on the impact of injuring a pregnant woman to the unborn child. Suspects of killing a pregnant woman should be tried on two charges of homicide. In this case, the judiciary would treat the mother and the child as separate legal entities. However, the Unborn Victims of Violence Act does not consider the legal or illegal acts of a mother that harm the unborn children. The uncovered aspects include abortion. As such, a mother cannot be tried for abortion under this law (Congress 6329). Making the bill into law involved several players. The players in this bill include members of Congress, the President, interest groups and political parties. The bill was sponsored by individual members of the Congress. Melissa Hart (R-Pa) moved the bill in the House of Representatives. The house of representatives was the first house to introduce the bill and also debate it. The proposal was sponsored by Senator Mike DeWine (R-Ohio) in the Senate. The bill was tabled in the Senate after adoption and debate in the lower house. The movers of the motion were acting on their beliefs towards life,

The Greatest Generation Essay Example for Free

The Greatest Generation Essay It had been a turbulant twenty years for our young American and the worst and the best weve yet to come. On December 7th 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Across America on that Saturday afternoon the stunning news from the radio electrified the nation and changed the lives of all who heard It. The young Americans of this time constituted a generation birth marked for greatness. A generation of Americans that would take its place in American history. It may be historically premature to Judge the greatest generation but indisputably here are common traits that cannot be denied Its a generation of towering achievement and modest demeanor. A legacy of their formative years when they were participants in and witnesses to sacrifices of the highest order. Tom Brokaw, the author of The Greatest Generation illustrates that l think this is the greatest generation any society has ever produced. With such a bold statement, and a sweeping Judgement, since then he has restated it on my occasions. While he is periodically challenged on premise, he believes he has the tacts on his side. Yet he doesnt have facts, he has opinions that help bulld up from his foundation of hls statement. Many are from people who had lived during World War II. They tell how the war had impacted on their lives. What they think about their Generation. Martha Settle Putney stated (pg. 185) l knew when World War II approached it would be a terrible thing but afterward I was so gratefuln_lt provided opportunity Daniel Inouye believed the same thing as he stated (pg. 49) The one time the nation got ogether was World War II, We stood as one. we spoke as one, we clenched our fists as one.

The Related Literature And Studies English Language Essay

The Related Literature And Studies English Language Essay Communication is an integral part of human existence and development. Engaging in it is inevitable particularly in a business setting as it is relative to promoting an idea, product, service, or organization to create value or make a sale (Khan). Successful businesses recognize the value of communication in the workplace which requires proficiency in oral and written communication skills. The latter is engineered to display information effectively on the page in order to get results, to inform, to request, to entertain, or to persuade (Holloway). In fact, 90% of all business transactions involve written communications (DePompa). Hence effective business communication demands ideas, thoughts, and concepts to be expressed and presented in an orderly, formal, and effective manner. English as Second Language (ESL) learners perceive business writing skill as far more challenging than that of oral business communication. The former requires the use of written English based on standards set by prescriptive authorities associated with publishing houses and schools (www.wikipedia.com). Teachers, like the researcher, are faced with the challenge of addressing students lack of business writing skills which emanates from their confusion and difficulty in understanding the concepts governing business writing. Business writing is a highly demanding process that necessitates an organization in the development of thoughts, ideas, and accuracy in word choices. The most common problem that confronts teachers of the writing class does not lie so much on what to ask students to write about; the difficulty is more on how to motivate the students to write interesting and effective materials. Writing for its own sake is a drag, and produces boring output (Ikeguchi). Writing only becomes an interesting activity when the teacher knows how to go about teaching it. One very important point the teacher can consider to increase motivation is to actually become a very good supporter and facilitator in the entire writing process. In this regard, the use of newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing is can be considered. The use of newspaper articles can be an effective intervention to implement in the writing-learning process because it can easily be adapted in Business Communication and Writing class. Newspaper articles offer situations that students are likely to encounter in real life. Through newspaper articles, they can use their experiences and prior knowledge to respond appropriately, and even creatively. This intervention can also help students with low English proficiency to arouse interest so they can actively participate in the class activities. The use of newspaper articles motivates students to write what they want, what they need, and what they feel. Because of the increased responsibility to participate through a variety of writing exercises, students may gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen Freeman). This paper intends to find out whether the use of newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing skills of iACADEMY students is effective. Background of the Study Having the mindset of directly addressing the need for ready-to-hire graduates/applicants of both the information technology (IT) and business industries, Mr. Mitch Andaya, former Dean of the College of Computer Studies in DLSU and Vice-President of STI Colleges Head Office, together with the other founders, established the Information and Communications Technology Academy, now better known as iACADEMY, in March of 2002. The school acquired the first and third floors of the PhilCare Building in Ayala Avenue corner Dela Rosa Street in Makati City. At present, the school occupies the third to the fifth floor of the building that has been renamed iACADEMY. iACADEMY offers Bachelor of Science in Computer Science (BSCS) with Specialization in Software Engineering, Bachelor of Science in Information Technology (BSIT) with Specialization in Digital Arts, and Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (BSBA) with Specialization in Marketing and Advertising Management, Bachelor of Science in Animation (BSA), Bachelor of Science in Game Development (BSGD), Bachelor of Arts in Multimedia Arts and Design (AB MMA), and Bachelor of Arts in Fashion Design (ABFD). iACADEMYs library houses a good selection of hard-to-find and imported books, a generous number of local text books and reference materials, and half a dozen desktop computers equipped with the internet, the latest software for IT-related courses and electronic books (e-books) encompassing a variety of subjects to address the needs of its students across all degrees. It also has been on daily subscription with two of the more prominent Philippine broadsheets, the Manila Bulletin and the Philippine Star. Several copies of the daily issues of these broadsheets are accessible to everyone who works for or studies in the institution. However, based upon the school librarians personal observation, only a handful of individuals, most of whom are faculty members, take the time to read these newspapers. Students become interested with these learning materials only when the need arises, like when assignments necessitate them to read and photocopy articles in these newspapers. This study, which aims to improve the students business writing skills, also hopes to make students become active newspaper readers after they discover the real-life learning opportunities it can offer. The advent of computer and internet technology may have invited people to forgo handwritten letters, but definitely not letter writing itself. The existence of the computer and internet in fact has revolutionized letter writing, particularly its speed in creation, transmission, and feedback. And, with the development of electronic mailing system (e-mail), people probably write more than they actually used to. The internet may have decreased the interest of people to perform the task of hand writing but it has also increased peoples preference for written communication (Bly). Two decades or so ago, most managers dictated letters which their secretaries typed. Today, more professionals personally transcribe their letters as computer literacy, including a working knowledge on MS Word and Excel has become a basic managerial requirement (Bly). This goes to show that there is an increase in the number of individuals who are actively performing the skill of writing everyday; therefore, a call for more emphasis on teaching and learning writing skills is an imperative. Majority of iACADEMYs student population comes from the upper-middle to the high-class members of the society. Most of them are graduates of private or exclusive high schools. However, this alone cannot be taken as a guarantee of their English proficiency, both in oral and written communication. Business Communication and Writing course falls under the umbrella of English for Specific Purpose (ESP) course; therefore, it requires a higher level of English proficiency. This is why the course is set as the third English course to be taken by students while the first two English courses are its prerequisites. iACADEMY English faculty are alarmed with their students poor writing performance. These students barely pass or even fail their English subjects because they exhibit below average level of competency, particularly in writing; and when asked why they performed rather poorly, they blamed their very little exposure to the language and uninteresting English subjects as the culprits. English language educators have to admit that ensuring the students improvement in writing performance is in their hands. Writing only becomes an interesting activity when the language educator knows how to go about teaching it and by increasing students motivation in engaging students in the writing process. In this regard, the use of newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing of iACADEMY students is recommended for consideration. In the Philippines, there are very limited studies related to the topic. The researcher would therefore attempt to make a modest contribution to this area through a different approach by the use of newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing. https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwtoMe0474voH5OGU8DqUhJpcE-Y3Rn-uLj9PYJV3J3hNnCn4ItJOgo3z4EAKvFRfDf79b1b2UP8K1x8_VROxFcNVwvylu0DjrE9HTQV8Q9FrfQGiwlhAvmif-KO4rGE1RS5dH7C2OZET4/s1600/iACADEMY.jpg Map of the Location of Information and Communications Technology Academy Figure 1 Theoretical Framework The framework of this research is anchored on two approaches. First is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) or Communicative Approach (CA) or in its earlier stage, Notional Functional Approach; and second is the Craftsmanship approach in Business Communication. The CLT approach is the result of the works of educators and linguists known as the Council of Europe language experts (Bryam) in the early 1970s and was further developed by David Wilkins, a prominent linguist who used the term communicative approach in 1974 (Wilkins). It can be further traced to the work of Chomsky in the 1960s, when he advanced the two notions of competence and performance as a reaction against the prevalent audio-lingual method of the time. The central theoretical concept and goal of the CLT approach is communicative competence, a term introduced into discussions of language use and second or foreign language learning together with communicative language teaching in the early 1970s (Savignon). Communicative competence can be defined in terms of the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning and looks to both psycholinguistic and socio-cultural perspectives in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) research to account for its development (Savignon). Teaching writing in the SLA context is one of the main objectives of foreign language teaching and learning. It involves a preparatory phase known as the decision-making phase. This phase entails defining the rhetorical problem: establishing a purpose for writing, determining the audience and a topic. Secondly, the ensuing writing processes are then determined and established. These processes involve the planning, transcribing, and reviewing of the composed work (Lee). The CLT approach to writing is an effective approach because it allows students to draw from their prior knowledge, actively navigate their way through the various writing processes with the appropriate scaffolding, and finally present their understanding of the content. One application of CLT approach is the use of authentic materials. Proponents of CLT have advocated the use of authentic real-life materials in the classroom which include language-based such as newspapers, magazines, advertisements, or graphic and visual sources in which communicative activities can be built (Jin, Application of Communicative Approach in College English Teaching). The range of exercise types and activities compatible with CLT is unlimited. Moreover, it is not assumed in this approach that the teacher is the center of all classroom activities (Al-Mutawa); therefore, the CLT is a learner-centered approach to language learning; and that the teachers and learners motivation and positive attitude are crucial for effective teaching and learning. Finally, as each classroom is different and is composed of different types of learners, several techniques and strategies may be used to address individual learner differences within the SLA environment (Lee). The second theory that this study will use as framework is the Rhetorical Theory in Business Communication. This theory declares that the communication process is neither a single nor a linear process; but is rather continuous making the entire communication process clear to all parties involved. One of the major approaches that the rhetorical theory offers to business communication is the Craftsmanship approach, which is based upon the well-crafted sales letter. It posits that the purpose of the letter is to convince, inform, and arouse its readers interest; therefore, it should be written with the you attitude, wherein the writer attempts to identify with the readers needs, perspective, language, and desires. This then becomes the master strategy for planning means of stimulating the readers faculties in various letter situations (Brooks). The you attitude is given due attention and emphasis by George Burton Hotchkiss. He says that what is true of sales letters is equally true of all other kinds of business letters. He further suggests that the first thing the writer must do is to form the habit of looking at the subject of his message from the readers viewpoint and language; and more importantly, he must get what is called the you attitude. The ideas and concepts in a letter should be expressed from the point of view of the reader. Whatever is said must be expressed in language directed at the reader himself (Hotchkiss and Kilduff). Aside from the you attitude, principle, Hotchkiss also adds five concepts that should always be observed when writing a business letter correctness, clearness, conciseness, courteousness, and character (Hotchkiss and Kilduff). These concepts are known as the, 5 Cs of business writing, should be evident in any type of business letter. Conceptual Framework The researcher has come up with a conceptual framework (see Fig. 1) based upon the theoretical framework of this study. Experimental (treatment) and control groups are included in the framework design. The process to be used for the experimental (treatment) group will be from a pretest to the use of newspaper articles to the posttest that will provide data for the validation of the hypotheses. The control group will undergo the process of a pretest to the conventional pedagogy to the posttest that will provide data for validation of hypotheses. The teaching methodology to be applied for this group is lecture-discussions. Experimental Group Control Group Pretest Pretest Conventional Teaching Conventional Teaching Posttest Use of Newspaper Articles as Intervention Posttest Improved Business Writing Skills Research Paradigm Figure 2 Statement of the Problem The main purpose of the study was to look into the effectiveness of using newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing performance in the Business Communication and Writing class of iACADEMY during the third trimester of school year 2011-2012. More specifically, the study aimed to answer the following sub-problems: Based on the 5 Cs of writing, what were the writing performances of the experimental and control groups in the following: Pretest Posttest Was there any significant difference between the pretest and the posttest writing performance of the two groups: Experimental group Control group Was there any significant difference in the pretest writing performance of the two groups: Experimental group Control group Was there any significant difference in the posttest writing performance of the two groups: Experimental group Control group Hypotheses: There is no significant difference between the pretest and the posttest writing performance of the experimental group. There is no significant difference between the pretest and the posttest writing performance of the control group. There is no significant difference in the pretest writing performance of the experimental and control groups. There is no significant difference in the posttest writing performance of the experimental and control groups. Scopes and Limitations This study focused on determining the effects of using newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing performance of iACADEMY students. The research subjects were taken from two heterogeneous groups of students enrolled at the Information and Communications Technology Academy (iACADEMY) in Makati City during the third semester of school year 2011-2012 and who were officially enrolled in ENG103 Business Communication and Writing course. The lecture-discussions for this study were based on the ENG103 (Business Communication and Writing) syllabus designed by the researcher three weeks prior to the start of the third trimester. The institution where he teaches allows members of the faculty to modify the course syllabus provided that such modifications are geared towards better delivery of the much needed learning of the students. Both experimental and control group were provided with the same lectures but with differences in the pedagogical approach. The control group was given only the lecture presentations and practice drills while the experimental group had newspapers articles integrated in the class activities in addition to the usual lecture presentations and practice drills. The newspaper articles chosen by the researcher typified the following principles of CLT approach (Jin, Application of Communicative Approach in College English Teaching): (1) Communicative Principle; (2) Task Principle; and (3) Meaningfulness Principle. Significance of the Study The individuals, who can benefit from this study, include the students, the language and the literature instructors, the curriculum designers, and future researchers. Students. The implementation of the study will benefit college students since newspapers can help them develop not only their reading and speaking skills, grammar, and vocabulary, but also their writing skill. Newspaper articles are considered to be authentic learning materials that provide real-life learning that motivates students to utilize previous life experiences and prior knowledge of a given topic. It can also serve as a model for proper execution of the writing tasks. Language Arts Instructors. The use of newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of the business writing skills of students gives English instructors more up-to-date teaching materials that are readily accessible to them and their students. Newspaper articles can also serve as good examples for students to improve their writing skills. Curriculum Designers. Inevitably, academicians who focus on innovating designs of the English curriculum would need to find better if not pioneering approaches to teaching English as a second language. It is in this light that such professionals might want to consider including and utilizing newspaper articles in developing curricula that would focus on both language and literature. Other researchers. This study can open new doors for researchers to investigate the effects of the use of newspaper articles in the improvement of the writing performance of students in the English classes, and probably in other disciplines as well, such as in science, history, and values education. Definition of Terms The following terms are defined operationally and conceptually in the study: Authentic Materials. These are materials which involve language naturally occurring as communication in native-speaker contexts of use, or those selected contexts where Standard English is the norm. Business Communication. This is sharing of information between people within an enterprise that is performed for the commercial benefit of the organization. In addition, business communication can also refer to how a company shares information to promote its product or services to potential consumers. Business Communication Skill. This is the ability to convey information to another effectively and efficiently. Business managers with good verbal, non-verbal and written communication skills help facilitate the sharing of information between people within a company for its commercial benefit. Character. This is both an intellectual and emotional quality of the business letter that expresses the writers unique personality in a very natural way, with due regard for his subject and his reader, making the letter a more adequate substitute for personal representative. Clearness. This is an intellectual quality of the business letter that shows its quality of impression and is therefore always to be judged from the readers viewpoint. The writer always knows what he means if he means anything at all. If the reader, however, does not know what a statement means, such a statement lacks this quality of clarity. Communication. This is the two-way process by which information is being conveyed between two individuals, a sender and a receiver, through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior in order to reach mutual understanding and create a shared meaning. Communicative Competence. It is a situational ability to set realistic and appropriate goals and to maximize their achievement by using knowledge of self, other, context, and thereby to generate adaptive communication performances. Communicative Principle. This principle uses activities that involve real communication situations that promote learning. Conciseness. This is an intellectual quality of the business letter that demands as little as possible of the readers time and gives the kind of service that builds goodwill. Control group. This is a group of students to be used as standard comparison in a control experiment. Conventional Pedagogy. This is the standard way of providing learning to the students at iACADEMY, which incorporates PowerPoint presentations with lecture-discussions. Correctness. This is both an intellectual and emotional quality of the business letter. It is an intellectual quality because the words, spelling, grammar, and punctuation must all be in conformity with established usage. It is also an emotional quality because incorrectness distracts and irritates, and arouses contempt because it gives a bad suggestion of ignorance, carelessness, or haste on the part of the writer. Courteousness. This is an emotional quality of the business letter that is based upon consideration for the readers feelings and personality by the studious avoidance of any idea that would offend. A writer should have no difficulty in securing this quality if he has a genuine recognition of the readers equality with himself. ENG 103. This is the course code of Business Communication and Writing, which is the third English subject needed to be taken by the students after accomplishing the prerequisite English courses Communication Arts 101 and Oral Communications with Public Speaking. Experimental group. This is a group of students that will under study to determine the effects of using newspaper articles as intervention in business writing performance Learner-centered Approach. This is an approach to education focusing on the needs, abilities, interests, and learning styles of the students with the teacher as a facilitator of learning, rather than those of others involved in the educational process, such as teachers and administrators. Lecture-Discussion. This is a teaching model that uses what students already know by building their own background; presents information in a systematic manner; and uses teacher questioning to involve students actively in the learning process. Meaningfulness Principle. This involves language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process. Newspaper Article. This is a written work published in print for the purpose of propagating the news, research results, academic analysis, or debate in a scheduled publication such as the broadsheets. Posttest. This is an achievement test that will be used to identify the students level of improvement in their writing skills upon attainment of learning in the given lecture-discussions and activities performed in class. Pretest. This is a diagnostic test which aims to determine the students preparedness in beginning a new course of study. The test helps in the assessment of the student needs in learning the topics to be covered in the instructional design. Proficiency. It is mastery of a specific behavior or skill demonstrated by consistently superior performance, measured against established or popular standards. Second Language Acquisition (SLA). This is the process by which people of a first language learn a second language in addition to their native language. Task principle. This principle involves activities in which language is used to carry out meaningful tasks to promote learning. Writing rubric. This is an assessment tool that attempts to communicate particular level of expected qualities in writing performance areas specifically based upon the 5 Cs of Business Writing. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES Presented in this chapter are the foreign and local literatures and studies which are relevant to the present study because such contain written reviews or commentaries of other researchers, theorists, and professionals with regard to the use of newspaper articles as intervention in the improvement of business writing. As a result of some limitations, the researcher acknowledges the fact that there is a possibility that other relevant literatures are still unread, either due to time constraint or distance issues of the location of the resource materials. Despite this discrepancy, the researcher tries to exhaust, to its fullest capabilities, the internet that seems to augment and provide sufficient information to supplement the library materials available. Foreign Literature J.C. Richards (2006) states that the ever-growing demand for good communication skills in the English language has created a huge demand for teaching English and an enormous demand for quality language teaching materials and resources. Learners today set themselves the demanding goal of being able to master English on a high proficiency level. Even employers demand that members of the workforce exhibit good English language skills, both oral and written. The demand for an appropriate teaching methodology is therefore an imperative (J. C. Richards). According to Carol Rzadkiewicz, communication is vital in an organization because it not only connects members within a specific department but also connects them to those from other departments, from other branches, and, in todays global economy, from around the world. Moreover, communication can make the difference between success and failure for a company. Good communication helps ensure the efficient operation of all levels of an organization, from the lowest to the highest, whereas poor communication often results in inefficiency; and as successful business leaders know, inefficiency equals a loss of productivity and, consequently, a loss of profits (Rzadkiewicz). Lee believes that writing must first be given a clear definition so that a philosophy or an approach to teaching writing in SLA classroom maybe utilized. Writing as communication may be defined as how learners put thoughts down on paper and develop them into some kind of coherent text (p.245) (Lee). Writing skill is a difficult task for it requires prior knowledge of the language components such as morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. These components serve as broader aspects of language for the underlying foundation of language skills like vocabulary, capitalization, syllabification, punctuation, sentence structure, sequential order, and initiation and maintenance of thoughts (Brice). Beare (2012) revealed that for many ESL learners, learning to write fluently in English is much more challenging than learning to speak fluently. Even for advanced level learners, written communications can come much more slowly in English than spoken communications because written communication is more formal; spoken communication allows for more mistakes; less reflection goes into spoken English than written English; and expectations are much higher for formal written English. It is important when teaching written English skills especially for business English to be aware of the challenges that learners face when learning to function in a written English environment and considerations should be given to achieve this. One such consideration is that acquiring speech is an unconscious act, whereas learning to write takes a conscious effort on the part of the learner. Another is that written language must be filtered through a system, which can be phonemic, structural or representative, etc. The individual must not only learn to recognize the meaning of words orally, but also go through a process of transcribing these sounds. Lastly, the process of transcribing requires the learning of other rules and structures thereby cognizing a previously unconscious process (Beare). Widdowson ¼Ã‹â€ 1978 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °enumenrates two aspects in language; one is rules, such as grammar, that determine correctness, and the other is the performative ability that allows people to undertake meaningful communication. He labels the correctness as usage and the performance as use. Since the language functions systematically and communicatively, both spoken and written modes of language cannot leave out either the grammatical and communicative aspects (Widdowson). Communicative writing can be described as the act of corresponding. Of course, as Widdowson ¼Ã‹â€ 1978 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °acknowledges, the socially reciprocal setting of the written mode is different from that of the spoken mode because, unlike listeners, readers are not always available for immediate responses or, even worse, for any form of interactions whatsoever. However, communicative writing entails the presence of readers as target audience. The important point is that one can write following grammatical rules, and one can compose in order to communicate with others through writing, yet, if the one does not write with the target audience in mind, composition cannot be an act of communication. According to Richards and Rodgers (1986), the theory of CLT approach is holistic rather than behavioristic. It starts with a theory of language as communication which implies knowledge of the grammatical system as well as performance (Richards and Rodgers). Widdowson (1984) stated that in other words, such competence includes both the usage and use of the language (Widdowson). Richards, J. C. (2006) explains that communicative competence embraces three fundamental dimensions: first, the ability to use linguistic means to realize a variety of language functions; second, the ability to use language appropriately with due consideration of the social context in which communication takes place; and third is the ability to develop strategies to manage the negotiation of meaning. This specification of communicative competence is the hallmark of the CLT approach because it cannot be founding the theoretical framework of any other method of or approach to language teaching (J. C. Richards). The CLT approach to teaching writing in the second language acquisition (SLA) context introduces two essential phases: first, a decision-making phase and a second phase whereby the ensuing writing processes are determined and established (Lee). The decision-making phase entails defining the rhetorical problem. It involves establishing a purpose for writing, determining an audience and a topic, ac

Knowledge in Name of the Rose Essay -- English Literature Essays

Knowledge in Name of the Rose Knowledge was one of the most powerful tools of the middle ages. It was highly valued by many kings and members of nobility, but the greatest procurer of knowledge through the middle ages was undoubtedly the church. Their motive for the capturing of wisdom was not for their own enrichment, but predominantly self-preservation. If the general public were to get hold of such a wealth of philosophical and scientific works that were withheld in the monastic libraries then they would almost certainly begin to formulate their own religious ideas, therefore releasing the societal stranglehold the church held so tightly at that time. To survive the church had to keep the knowledge from the masses, and this is something that Umberto Eco has incorporated with finesse into his novel The Name of the Rose. Intertextuality, postmodernism, allusions and an array of interesting characters help to explain the state of education and the availability of knowledge in the middle ages. The labyrinth is one of the most important aspects to the portrayal of knowledge in The Name of the Rose. Its design and purpose are a brilliant metaphor to the churches desire to keep knowledge from the poor and powerless. The story of the labyrinth goes right back to a Greek myth, which tells of a beast with the head of a bovine and the body of a man, who was conceived of a woman and a snow white bull. It was confined to a labyrinth from which there was no escape without assistance. The concept that Eco uses in The Name of the Rose is very similar, except instead of guarding the Minotaur, Eco’s labyrinth guard’s books, the knowledge that could be the destruction of the church’s vice-like grip upon society. The minotaur wanted seven young maidens and seven youths per year to quench it’s appetite, and one year the Greek hero Theseus became sick of the killing and offered himself as a sacrifice to the bull, with the intention of killing it. He went in with a ball of string and a sword, the ball of string he used to trace his path back to the start when he had killed the Minotaur. There are distinct parallels between William, and the hero Theseus. William entered the library with the intention of getting at the contents that it was protecting from society, which of course were the books, just as Theseus entered the Minotaur’s labyrinth to rescue the young men and w... ...uld lead one to believe that Jorge is simply following the attitude of the church. This being that works which use methods to make their concepts especially easy to understand are very dangerous, and therefore they above all others should be prevented from circulation into society. Umberto Eco has made the theme of knowledge a central subject within The Name of the Rose, and the literary techniques he uses as well as his highly complex characters are highly successful in conveying the way knowledge was treated in the era of great power that the catholic church held. The use of Sherlock Holmes in an intertextual sense and the consequent post-modern aspects of his amalgamation within the story are especially clever methods which serve to provide a very interesting tangent to the novel. The Name Of The Rose can be taken both on surface value as a typical crime story and from underneath as a wonderful political piece that embodies the attitudes of the time whilst still maintaining it’s ironic edge as a Sherlock Holmes murder thriller set in the early 1300’s, 500 years before Doyle’s work, and written in the 1980’s, some 100 years later than the Holmes mysteries were first published.

Coops Towne :: essays research papers

Here is a place for fun, adventure, and the unexpected can all occur. If you thought that your dreams could never come true, think again. Now this isn't any just any theme park, this is Coops Towne the one and only mainly sports theme park. This park was founded and is owned by David Cooper. It's located in marvelous Miami, Florida. Coops Towne consists of four lands: Frontierland, Tomorrowland, Fantasyland, and Adventureland. There's also the infamous 'Walk of Fame' where the greatest players in baseball, football, basketball, tennis, golf, NASCAR, and sportscasters are honored. The ?Walk of Fame? is the main street to Coops Towne, where it divides all four lands. On the ?Walk of Fame? there are two tennis players, as well as, two soccer players, and golf players. It also has four (of each) football, baseball, basketball players, and sportscasters. These people are honored on the ?Walk of Fame? because they were either the best at their position, or the best of their time. The ?Walk of Fame? is black, has stepping stones with the peoples name and a symbol representing what they did above it, and trees bordering it. Fantasyland is possibly the first land you will visit when you go to Coops Towne, because the entrance is the first to the left. It has three rides, two museums, and a restaurant. The first ride is called ?Expedition Space?, this ride is indoors and requires you to wear and astronauts suit because it?s in no gravity. The inside of the building looks like the inside of a space shuttle. ?Adventure Mountain? is another ride in Fantasyland, it is so big it has a lodge on the top of it. ?Adventure Mountain Lodge? is a mountain where you can hike, swim, and bike down the mountain. This mountain is so enormous we had to build a lodge for people who made the journey up but are too tired to make the venture back down. ?Adventure Mountain? is the only part of Coops Towne in which everything is 100% real. It?s also the largest exhibit of Coops Towne. ?Rain Forest Exploration? is Coops Towne?s only exploration museum. This ride is a car ride through the mighty rain forest, where you will encounter all the amazing plants, and animals, of the rain forest. But, you only have three minutes to look throughout all of the rain forest to find a stranded person, and this person is the only one who knows how to get out.

Education at a Year-Round School Essay -- essays papers

Education at a Year-Round School Consider the following situation: A car is driving past the local elementary school on a hot and sunny July afternoon. As the car approached the school the driver notices some unusual things. Students are outside with the teachers for recess, and it looks as if school is in session. The school is on a year-round schedule. The driver is intrigued and decides to do some research. From the research, this person found that students are achieving more academically and the teachers are well rested. Year-round schooling is beneficial to school systems because: it alleviates overcrowding, offers remedial opportunities, decreases teacher burnout, increases retention rates, assists English as a Second Language (ESL) and low-poverty students, and improves the entire school community. Wildavsky (1999) says, â€Å"[The National Association for Year-Round Education] defines a year-round school as an institution with fewer than eight weeks of summer vacation† (para. 7). According to another article (1997), â€Å"In 1986, there were about 400 year-round schools in 16 states. By 1997, the number increased to 2400 in 41 states† (National Association for Year-Round Education, para. 4). Additionally, Hunter (1998) adds, â€Å"†¦the U.S. National Association for Year-Round Schools stated that year-round schooling has grown by 500 percent in the past decade† (para. 4). These schools are capable of meeting the needs of our students, teachers, and administrators. Overcrowding Schools that follow a year-round schedule can help alleviate overcrowded schools. The number of students is growing, as studied by Hellerman, Schriffen, D., Colenso-Semple, Spiner, and Schriffen, J. (1997), at 30,000 to 40,000 per year and distric... ...Summer in class. Macleans, 111 (32), 47. Retrieved March 3, 2005 from Academic Search Premier/EBSCO database. Learning that lasts year-round (1997). NEA Today, 15 (7), 19. Retrieved March 3, 2005 from Academic Search Premier/EBSCO database. Rivera, E. (2003). It’s August, but for some, vacation’s over; Arlington Elementary pupils begin test of year-round school. The Washington Post, B.01. Retrieved March 3, 2005, from Proquest database. Shields, C. M., & Oberg, S. L. (2000). Year-round schooling: Promises and pitfalls. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press. Wildavsky, B. (1999). Scholars of summer. U.S. News & World Report, 127 (5), 52-55. Retrieved March 3,2005 from Academic Search Premier/EBSCO database. Year-round schools can stimulate learning. (2000).USA Today Magazine, 129 (2663), 7. Retrieved March 3, 2005 from Academic Search Premier/EBSCO database.

Pet Peeve

Food! Oh my god I love food, and you can kind of tell. There so many different kinds. I enjoy the great satisfaction when I’m full. The only thing I don’t really like about food is seeing it in people’s mouths or hearing them chewing on their food. This is probably one of the things that irks me the most. If you want to make me leave a room, I have just clued you into a very simple way it can be done. Once I was at the theaters with my sister and two brothers going to see the movie Battle of Los Angeles. My sister asks if I can go get her some snacks and me being the kind person that I am I had no problems with that. I came back with couple of snacks some M&Ms, Reece’s Pieces, and chocolate covered raisins, my favorite. About halfway into the movie my sister grabs a handful of Reece’s Pieces, shoves it in her mouth and starts munching. CRUNCH! CRUNCH! CRUNCH! While her mouth was still full she makes a comment on the movie and SPLAT! Landed right on my face. She saw what she had done, not a big deal she apologized and I forgave her. Next, me and my mother went to a restaurant to eat breakfast. Everything was going all good. We were talking about her work, but once again someone had to talk while their mouth was full! She cuts a small piece of her pancake with her fork puts it in her mouth starts talking. I then look at her with a disgust look in my face and right when she said, â€Å"WHAT?! †I felt a piece of her food landed on my mouth. GROSS! I literally lost my appetite and didn’t really want to eat no more. I didn’t really say anything because if I did I knew she would of overreacted and got mad so I kept my mouth shut this time. Once more! When I thought that this wouldn’t happen to me again†¦ well at least not until awhile, but it did! About a couple days from my last incident it happened again, but this time it was worse. I didn’t even know the person. I was minding my own business talking to my friends then I hear this disgusting sound kind of sounded like a deer gnawing off its own leg? I turned around to see some guy eating an apple chewing with his mouth open. I really tried minding my own business really trying not to be the bad guy and say something, but then I felt something kind of wet, hit the back of my neck and couldn’t help but tell him. Of course I wasn’t rude about it I just told him if he can chew with his mouth close because it’s disgusting and a piece of it flew out of his mouth and landed on the back of my neck. Obviously he didn’t care or was too embarrass because he didn’t even speak. Couldn’t even say sorry at least. Some people are just rude these days. They should really start using their manners and close their mouth and keep it shut when they are eating. Its disgusting and nobody wants to see that! If they wanted to know what they are eating they would of asked! After all this had happen to me I really am annoyed with people who talk with their mouth full, chews with their mouth open, or chews really loud.

Re-Examining the ‘Step-and-Slide’: Sex Differences in Pedestrian Collision Avoidance

Abstract Previous literature has reported sex differences in collision avoidance behaviour by pedestrians. The current study sough to establish whether these sex differences are still valid now by observing an opportunity sample of male and female pedestrians in a busy location. A chi-square test found a significant (p 01) relationship between sex and collision avoidance behaviour. In particular, women were significantly more likely to engage in closed passes and men were significantly more likely to engage in open passes. This finding is in keeping with the pattern previously reported by Collett and Marsh (1981). Future research is needed to understand why these sex differences may exist. Introduction Despite often busy and overcrowded public areas, pedestrians can be observed navigating and avoiding collisions with remarkable ease. Previous literature appears to be relatively unanimous in its observations and conclusions about how pedestrians are able to avoid collisions. In an early study, Goffman (1972) made a number of observations including that people tend to form two lanes whilst walking upon the pavement, with one group walking on the inside, away from the road and the other group walking on the outside and close to the road. Many years later, Collett and Marsh (1981) observed the same phenomenon and coined the term ‘pedestrian streaming.’ It was also discovered that individuals will use others’ movements and monitor their intentions, known as â€Å"externalisation,† to ensure a smoother passage. These movements may be unconscious or conscious and may as be discrete as a slight turn of the shoulders. Again, this phenomenon was also observed by Wo lff (1973), who named it â€Å"behaviour monitoring.† Wolff (1973) observed that many pedestrians engage in what he coined the ‘step-and-slide’ pass, which involved a slight angling of the shoulders alongside a discrete side step. After videotaping the passing behaviour of individuals using a pedestrian crossing, Collett and Marsh (1981) noted significant sex differences in the strategies used whilst engaging in this type of pass. Males were far more likely to use an open pass strategy by orienting toward the person they were trying to avoid whereas females were more likely to use a closed pass strategy by orienting themselves away from the person they were attempting to avoid. Interestingly, the types of pass used could not adequately be explained by the natural position of the leg during passing and even when it was more difficult, women were still more likely to use a closed pass. The researchers concluded that the use of a closed pass strategy by women was an example of self-protective behaviour. In particular, the auth ors concluded that women were attempting to protect their breasts after observing that they often drew their arms across their bodies during the pass. The result of Collett and Marsh’s (1981) study may now be outdated. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate whether sex differences in collision avoidance behaviour still exist today and whether the pattern still reflects that seen by Collett and Marsh (1981). Based on previous literature it is hypothesised that females will make more closed passes than males and that males will use more open passes than females. MethodParticipants2,910 participants (1,376 females, 1,534 males) were observed using an opportunity sample. As this was a observation study it was not feasible to collect demographic data such as age.MaterialsObservations were recorded on a data collection grid. The data collection grid was used to record the sex of the pedestrian and whether a open pass, closed pass or neutral pass was observed. Design This was a between-subjects design with male participants being compared with female participants. The predictor variable was the sex of the pedestrian and the criterion variable was the type of passing behaviour exhibited.ProcedureBefore collecting data for the study a pilot study was carried out to ensure that the observers could correctly identify whether a pedestrian was exhibiting an open pass, closed pass or neutral behaviour. Data was collected on an opportunity sample of ten pedestrians for the pilot study. For the main study, data was collected by observing pedestrians at various train stations during peak times. Two researchers collected the data with one acting as observer and the other acting as recorder. Observations were based on an opportunity sample and a mix of male-male, female-female and female-male interactions were recorded.ResultsA total of 1,376 females and 1,534 males were observed. Of the 1,376 females, 561 engaged in an open pass, whereas 815 engaged in a closed pass. Of the 1,534 males observed, 1,070 engaged in an open pass, whereas 464 engaged in a closed pass. A chi-square test was performed and a significant relationship was found between sex and type of collision avoidance behaviour X2 (1, N = 2910) = 247.32, p < 0.01. [Insert graph here] Discussion The aim of the current study was to investigate whether current sex differences in pedestrian collision avoidance behaviour support previous literature that has found females are more likely to use closed passes, whereas males are more likely to use open passes when avoiding each other in busy pedestrian areas. It was found that more women engaged in closed passes than men and that more men engaged in open passes than women. Statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant relationship between sex and type of collision avoidance behaviour. This means that women are significantly more likely to engage in closed passes, whereas men are significantly more likely to engage in open passes. This finding is in support of previous literature (Collett and Marsh, 1981) and the data supports the researchers’ hypothesis. Collett and Marsh (1981) argued that females engage in closed passes in an attempt to protect their breasts because they observed that women often drew their arms across their chests during the pass. However, more recent research has demonstrated that even in non-confrontational, everyday situations, females tend to sit in closed positions whilst keeping their arms close to their bodies (Cashdan, 1998; Vrugt and Luyerink, 2000). This suggests that Collett and Marsh’s (1981) initial interpretation may be flawed. Women may naturally adopt closed body language, which they are also likely to use during pedestrian collision avoidance scenarios. The finding that men are more likely to use open passes is in keeping with previous literature on male body language and non-verbal communication. For example, Mehrabian (1968) found that men tend to show more alertness than women by directing their shoulder orientation toward the other person. This could explain why men adopt an open positi on and direct their shoulders toward the other individual whilst passing them. Luxen (2005) found that men tend to exhibit behavioural dominance in situations involving women. Turning their body toward a woman, whilst she turns away, may reflect this dominance. Therefore, the current findings can be interpreted in the context of sex differences in both body language and non-verbal communication. It is difficult to draw any strong conclusions from an observational study and only inferences can be made. However, based on the results and what is known about body language, it appears as though the sex differences in the way that individuals avoid pedestrian collisions still exist today as they did in the 1980s. The results also seem to support Collett and Marsh’s (1981) conclusion that women are more likely to adopt a protective stance when making passes in a collision avoidance situation. The current study had a notable number of strengths. Primarily, this study utilised a large sample, which is highly likely to be representative of the population as a whole. Generalisability was also strengthened by using different train station locations for observations. Furthermore, having taken place in a natural environment rather than a lab setting, the results have good ecological validity. However, the observation method has a number of limitations, which should be noted. Firstly, although a pilot study was carried out in order to familiarise the observer with different types of passes, the data would have been more reliable if two observers had been used at any one time. An alternative method of improving the study would have to been to video record the observation area so that a second observer could interpret an identical scenario of pedestrian collision avoidance. This would have provided a measure of inter-observer reliability, which would have strengthened the results o f the study. It is also possible that the observer was biased because they were aware of the study hypothesis. In other words, the observer may have interpreted females to have carried out more closed passes because this is what was expected based on the previous literature. In future studies, keeping the observer blind to the hypothesis of the study will reduce this risk. There are also some ethical concerns with large scale observation studies such as this. For example, some individuals may object to being watched and to their behaviour being recorded. However, with such a large scale study, it would have been impossible to have sought the informed consent of each participant. Data was also completely anonymised, which keeps the study within ethical boundaries. Although the study has good generalisability, this is somewhat weakened by collecting results from only the UK. Future research may wish to focus on whether the same patterns are found internationally. Based on the findings of the current study, future studies may also wish to focus on exploring in more detail why these sex differences exist. For example, a sample of individuals exhibiting these behaviours could be administered a questionnaire to explore whether the behaviour is unconscious or conscious and if it is conscious, why they engage in either open or closed passes. References Cashdan, E. (1998). Smiles, speech, and body posture: How women and men display sociometric status and power. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 22(4), 209-228. Collett, P.R. & Marsh, P.E. (1981). Patterns of public behaviour: Collision avoidance on a pedestri an crossing. In A. Kendon (Ed.), Nonverbal communication, interaction and gesture (pp. 199-217). The Hague: Mouton Press. Goffman, E. (1972). Relations in public. Harmondsworth: Pelican. Luxen, M. (2005). Gender differences in dominance and affiliation during a demanding interaction. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 139(4), 331- 347. Mehrabian, A. (1968). Relationship of attitude to seated posture, orientation, and distance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(1), 26-30. Vrugt, A., & Luyerink, M. (2000). The contribution of bodily posture to gender stereotypical im pressions. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 28(1), 91. Wolff, M. (1973) Notes on the behaviour of pedestrians. In A. Birenbaum and E. Sagar (Eds.), Peo ple in places: The sociology of the familiar (pp. 35-48). New York: Praeger.